The
Battle of Adwa -A turning point in modern African history
The Battle of Adwa (also called Adowa and Adua) was fought over two days (1st / 2nd March) between Ethiopian forces under Emperor Menelik II and invading Italian forces, and was the deciding battle in the First Italo-Ethiopian war and a turning point in modern African history with a European Colonial power being defeated and Ethiopia being recognised as a sovereign nation state by the European powers.
As the scramble for Africa came to an end Italy was allocated Ethiopia but just needed to take control. Ethiopia was largely unknown to Europeans who were aware of the coastal areas due to trade but the central highlands had resisted any attempts to spread European influence. The Italians wrongly assumed that Ethiopia was made up of rival tribes and thought it would be a quick victory for their 20,000 strong invasion forces, only to face a united country with a much larger army.
Emperor
Menelik II had swept away old fashioned recruiting systems(tor &
Gasha) which had led to defeat by British forces previously and
replaced them with much better organisation and supply. With a better
organised economy the Ethiopian Emperor had greatly increased his
ability to raise and equip an army and he reacted quickly when the
Italian plans became known. Within two months he had raised 100,000
troops while the Empress Taitu raised 6,000. This Army also
included troops raised by regional governors such as the future
father of the Emperor Haile Selassie, Ras Tafari Makonnen who
commanded 12,000 troops.
Equipment was also greatly
improved with in excess of 70,000 modern rifles and 5 million rounds
of ammunition being available for the battle of Adwa not including
artillery. This mobilization was not without problems and delays and
this gave the Italians time to become established.The Italian forces were led by General Oreste Baraterie. His plan was to engage the Ethiopians in piecemeal battles and carve them up without facing their main force in a set piece battle. The Ethiopians on the other hand planned to use their advantage in infantry and artillery to smash the main Italian force in one battle, Menelik carefully build his alliance of princes but knew that he needed a decisive battle as he might not be able to hold the alliance together for a long protracted campaign. Ethiopian tactics and strategy were based on their own history and terrain and this was largely unknown to the Italians, so basing their ideas on the British experience the Italians expected to face a force one third of the size of Menelik’s Army.
By early 1896 both sides were running out of time, the Ethiopians living off the land, the Italian general under political pressure to act. Baraterie lacked confidence and this he displayed with a meeting with his officers on 29th February, present were brigadiers Matteo Albertone, Giuseppe Arimondi, Giuseppe Ellena and Vittorio Dabormida. During the meeting many of the officers argued for an attack and Baraterie finally decided to go ahead after several hours. The Italian forces were made up of around 18,000 infantry and 56 artillery guns, but several thousand Italian troops were allocated to supply duties and the remaining force included many inexperienced troops and some Eritrean lead by Italian officers, equipment was poor and morale low.
Menelik’s forces are likely to have numbered in excess of 100,000, the majority being riflemen but also a large number of lance armed cavalry. The Italian battle plan was for 3 columns which could provide fire support to each other but overnight they become separated and were several miles apart in rugged terrain. The Italian army comprised four brigades totaling 17,978 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces.The battle was a bloody affair with the Italians fighting hard despite being out numbered. Slowly but surely the greater Ethiopian numbers had their toll. Albertone's column broke first and then Dabormida’s column was cut off and fell back. Brigadier Dabormida now made a fatal error as he retreated back into a narrow valley where Ethiopian lancers wiped them out, his body was never recovered. The last of the invading army was slowly destroyed and by mid day the battle was finished, over 7,000 Italians died with the Ethiopians suffering a similar number of casualties. The Italians taken prisoner were treated well but Ethiopian troops (around 800) who had fought for the Italians were mutilated with their right hands and left feet being cut off.
The battle proved to be a crushing defeat and the Ethiopians followed up, driving the retreating Italians into Eritrea and out of the area entirely. The Treaty of Addis Abba on 26th October 1896 ended the war and the Italians recognised Ethiopian independence. The Italians did not give up on the idea of an Africa Empire and tried again under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s this time establishing their control before being driven off. In the aftermath of that defeat the Ethiopians freed Eritrea and returned it to Ethiopian control.
(Source of article historyofwar.org and Ethiopian History book)
In
March, 1896, Ethiopian forces under the leadership of Emperor Menelik
II surprised the world by defeating an Italian Army sent to conquer the
Empire. In the following article Raymond Jonas, the Giovanni and Amne
Costigan Professor of History at the University of Washington, explores
that victory at Adwa. His article is drawn from his recent book, The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire.
The battle of Adwa of 1 March 1896 was a stunning victory for Ethiopia but a rout and a disaster for Italy. Adwa – the story of Africans seeing to their own freedom – played out against a background of almost unrelenting European expansion into Africa. The success of Ethiopia’s forces assured that Ethiopia would be the only African country successfully to resist European colonization before 1914. It also resonated powerfully in post-Emancipation America where hierarchies of race and ethnicity were only beginning a process of challenge and renegotiation.
Italian interest in East Africa dates from 1869, when the opening of the Suez Canal transformed the commercial and strategic significance of the Red Sea coast. An official Italian presence didn’t begin until they established themselves at the Red Sea port of Massawa in 1885, after which the Italians began to move up into what are now the Eritrean highlands. Ethiopian commanders sought to halt the Italian advance, with some notable successes, but the Italians artfully played on rivalries among Ethiopian leaders. By 1890, the Italians had secured control over a significant territory west and south of Massawa; they announced the creation of the colony of Eritrea, with a capital at Asmara.
The Italians continued to push westward, into the Sudan, and southward, toward the northern Ethiopian province of Tigray. In late 1894 Ras Mangasha, the ruler of Tigray, used the pretext of war against the Dervishes to mobilize forces to resist Italian incursions. In a series of victories in early 1895, the Italians defeated Mangasha’s forces. They pursued Mangasha deep into northern Ethiopia, establishing fortified positions in Tigray and Agamay provinces - vastly expanding the territory under Italian control.
The population of Tigray and Agamay appeared, for a time, to accept Italian rule. Back in Rome, the Italian commander Oreste Baratieri was feted as an Italian hero.
In September of 1895, Menelik, king of the southern province of Shoa, called the population of Ethiopia to arms. He began to lead a massive force of some 100,000 men northward toward the Italian-occupied territories. Through late 1895 and into the early months of 1896, Menelik led a brilliant campaign that forced the overextended Italians to fight on his terms. By threatening to outflank the Italian forces and threaten Eritrea, Menelik maneuvered the Italians into a position that left their supply lines exposed, vulnerable to a population that was now turning against the occupiers.
General Baratieri was reluctant to attack Menelik’s army in the open field. Recognizing that he had been outmaneuvered, he believed that tactical retreat was his best option. Some of Baratieri’s officers argued forcefully against retreat, citing spy reports to the effect that Menelik’s forces were demoralized and depleted. Baratieri agreed to a plan that called for his army of some 15,000 to advance under cover of night and occupy forward positions, a move that would have forced Menelik to lose face if he declined to attack Italian forces holding strong defensive positions.
The advance took place at night on the 29th of February. By dawn, the Italians were to have been securely established in the Ethiopian passes, inviting attack. Instead, one Italian brigade overshot its rendezvous point and virtually marched into the Ethiopian camp. A second Italian brigade sent to cover the retreat of the first got caught up in a separate engagement. Menelik’s forces were able to defeat these brigades and the main Italian force in three separate combats. By the afternoon of 1 March 1896, Italian forces were in a desperate, panicked retreat back toward Eritrea.
Victory at Adwa sealed the unification of Ethiopia and solidified Menelik’s claim to the title of Emperor. Europeans and European-Americans interpreted the story of Adwa in different ways. For some, it was an opportunity to discredit Italy militarily. For others, it was important to advance the view that the Ethiopians were not black, thus explaining away the significance of white and European defeat.
Ethiopian victory secured independence for more than a generation. It also assured Ethiopia’s status as a beacon throughout the African Diaspora.
The battle of Adwa of 1 March 1896 was a stunning victory for Ethiopia but a rout and a disaster for Italy. Adwa – the story of Africans seeing to their own freedom – played out against a background of almost unrelenting European expansion into Africa. The success of Ethiopia’s forces assured that Ethiopia would be the only African country successfully to resist European colonization before 1914. It also resonated powerfully in post-Emancipation America where hierarchies of race and ethnicity were only beginning a process of challenge and renegotiation.
Italian interest in East Africa dates from 1869, when the opening of the Suez Canal transformed the commercial and strategic significance of the Red Sea coast. An official Italian presence didn’t begin until they established themselves at the Red Sea port of Massawa in 1885, after which the Italians began to move up into what are now the Eritrean highlands. Ethiopian commanders sought to halt the Italian advance, with some notable successes, but the Italians artfully played on rivalries among Ethiopian leaders. By 1890, the Italians had secured control over a significant territory west and south of Massawa; they announced the creation of the colony of Eritrea, with a capital at Asmara.
The Italians continued to push westward, into the Sudan, and southward, toward the northern Ethiopian province of Tigray. In late 1894 Ras Mangasha, the ruler of Tigray, used the pretext of war against the Dervishes to mobilize forces to resist Italian incursions. In a series of victories in early 1895, the Italians defeated Mangasha’s forces. They pursued Mangasha deep into northern Ethiopia, establishing fortified positions in Tigray and Agamay provinces - vastly expanding the territory under Italian control.
The population of Tigray and Agamay appeared, for a time, to accept Italian rule. Back in Rome, the Italian commander Oreste Baratieri was feted as an Italian hero.
In September of 1895, Menelik, king of the southern province of Shoa, called the population of Ethiopia to arms. He began to lead a massive force of some 100,000 men northward toward the Italian-occupied territories. Through late 1895 and into the early months of 1896, Menelik led a brilliant campaign that forced the overextended Italians to fight on his terms. By threatening to outflank the Italian forces and threaten Eritrea, Menelik maneuvered the Italians into a position that left their supply lines exposed, vulnerable to a population that was now turning against the occupiers.
General Baratieri was reluctant to attack Menelik’s army in the open field. Recognizing that he had been outmaneuvered, he believed that tactical retreat was his best option. Some of Baratieri’s officers argued forcefully against retreat, citing spy reports to the effect that Menelik’s forces were demoralized and depleted. Baratieri agreed to a plan that called for his army of some 15,000 to advance under cover of night and occupy forward positions, a move that would have forced Menelik to lose face if he declined to attack Italian forces holding strong defensive positions.
The advance took place at night on the 29th of February. By dawn, the Italians were to have been securely established in the Ethiopian passes, inviting attack. Instead, one Italian brigade overshot its rendezvous point and virtually marched into the Ethiopian camp. A second Italian brigade sent to cover the retreat of the first got caught up in a separate engagement. Menelik’s forces were able to defeat these brigades and the main Italian force in three separate combats. By the afternoon of 1 March 1896, Italian forces were in a desperate, panicked retreat back toward Eritrea.
Victory at Adwa sealed the unification of Ethiopia and solidified Menelik’s claim to the title of Emperor. Europeans and European-Americans interpreted the story of Adwa in different ways. For some, it was an opportunity to discredit Italy militarily. For others, it was important to advance the view that the Ethiopians were not black, thus explaining away the significance of white and European defeat.
Ethiopian victory secured independence for more than a generation. It also assured Ethiopia’s status as a beacon throughout the African Diaspora.
Sources:
George Berkeley, The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969). (Reprint of 1902 edition); Bruce Vandervort, Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Raymond Jonas, The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011).
- See more at: http://www.blackpast.org/perspectives/battle-adwa-adowa-1896#sthash.HzmgoLw9.dpufGeorge Berkeley, The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969). (Reprint of 1902 edition); Bruce Vandervort, Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Raymond Jonas, The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011).
In
March, 1896, Ethiopian forces under the leadership of Emperor Menelik
II surprised the world by defeating an Italian Army sent to conquer the
Empire. In the following article Raymond Jonas, the Giovanni and Amne
Costigan Professor of History at the University of Washington, explores
that victory at Adwa. His article is drawn from his recent book, The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire.
The battle of Adwa of 1 March 1896 was a stunning victory for Ethiopia but a rout and a disaster for Italy. Adwa – the story of Africans seeing to their own freedom – played out against a background of almost unrelenting European expansion into Africa. The success of Ethiopia’s forces assured that Ethiopia would be the only African country successfully to resist European colonization before 1914. It also resonated powerfully in post-Emancipation America where hierarchies of race and ethnicity were only beginning a process of challenge and renegotiation.
Italian interest in East Africa dates from 1869, when the opening of the Suez Canal transformed the commercial and strategic significance of the Red Sea coast. An official Italian presence didn’t begin until they established themselves at the Red Sea port of Massawa in 1885, after which the Italians began to move up into what are now the Eritrean highlands. Ethiopian commanders sought to halt the Italian advance, with some notable successes, but the Italians artfully played on rivalries among Ethiopian leaders. By 1890, the Italians had secured control over a significant territory west and south of Massawa; they announced the creation of the colony of Eritrea, with a capital at Asmara.
The Italians continued to push westward, into the Sudan, and southward, toward the northern Ethiopian province of Tigray. In late 1894 Ras Mangasha, the ruler of Tigray, used the pretext of war against the Dervishes to mobilize forces to resist Italian incursions. In a series of victories in early 1895, the Italians defeated Mangasha’s forces. They pursued Mangasha deep into northern Ethiopia, establishing fortified positions in Tigray and Agamay provinces - vastly expanding the territory under Italian control.
The population of Tigray and Agamay appeared, for a time, to accept Italian rule. Back in Rome, the Italian commander Oreste Baratieri was feted as an Italian hero.
In September of 1895, Menelik, king of the southern province of Shoa, called the population of Ethiopia to arms. He began to lead a massive force of some 100,000 men northward toward the Italian-occupied territories. Through late 1895 and into the early months of 1896, Menelik led a brilliant campaign that forced the overextended Italians to fight on his terms. By threatening to outflank the Italian forces and threaten Eritrea, Menelik maneuvered the Italians into a position that left their supply lines exposed, vulnerable to a population that was now turning against the occupiers.
General Baratieri was reluctant to attack Menelik’s army in the open field. Recognizing that he had been outmaneuvered, he believed that tactical retreat was his best option. Some of Baratieri’s officers argued forcefully against retreat, citing spy reports to the effect that Menelik’s forces were demoralized and depleted. Baratieri agreed to a plan that called for his army of some 15,000 to advance under cover of night and occupy forward positions, a move that would have forced Menelik to lose face if he declined to attack Italian forces holding strong defensive positions.
The advance took place at night on the 29th of February. By dawn, the Italians were to have been securely established in the Ethiopian passes, inviting attack. Instead, one Italian brigade overshot its rendezvous point and virtually marched into the Ethiopian camp. A second Italian brigade sent to cover the retreat of the first got caught up in a separate engagement. Menelik’s forces were able to defeat these brigades and the main Italian force in three separate combats. By the afternoon of 1 March 1896, Italian forces were in a desperate, panicked retreat back toward Eritrea.
Victory at Adwa sealed the unification of Ethiopia and solidified Menelik’s claim to the title of Emperor. Europeans and European-Americans interpreted the story of Adwa in different ways. For some, it was an opportunity to discredit Italy militarily. For others, it was important to advance the view that the Ethiopians were not black, thus explaining away the significance of white and European defeat.
Ethiopian victory secured independence for more than a generation. It also assured Ethiopia’s status as a beacon throughout the African Diaspora.
The battle of Adwa of 1 March 1896 was a stunning victory for Ethiopia but a rout and a disaster for Italy. Adwa – the story of Africans seeing to their own freedom – played out against a background of almost unrelenting European expansion into Africa. The success of Ethiopia’s forces assured that Ethiopia would be the only African country successfully to resist European colonization before 1914. It also resonated powerfully in post-Emancipation America where hierarchies of race and ethnicity were only beginning a process of challenge and renegotiation.
Italian interest in East Africa dates from 1869, when the opening of the Suez Canal transformed the commercial and strategic significance of the Red Sea coast. An official Italian presence didn’t begin until they established themselves at the Red Sea port of Massawa in 1885, after which the Italians began to move up into what are now the Eritrean highlands. Ethiopian commanders sought to halt the Italian advance, with some notable successes, but the Italians artfully played on rivalries among Ethiopian leaders. By 1890, the Italians had secured control over a significant territory west and south of Massawa; they announced the creation of the colony of Eritrea, with a capital at Asmara.
The Italians continued to push westward, into the Sudan, and southward, toward the northern Ethiopian province of Tigray. In late 1894 Ras Mangasha, the ruler of Tigray, used the pretext of war against the Dervishes to mobilize forces to resist Italian incursions. In a series of victories in early 1895, the Italians defeated Mangasha’s forces. They pursued Mangasha deep into northern Ethiopia, establishing fortified positions in Tigray and Agamay provinces - vastly expanding the territory under Italian control.
The population of Tigray and Agamay appeared, for a time, to accept Italian rule. Back in Rome, the Italian commander Oreste Baratieri was feted as an Italian hero.
In September of 1895, Menelik, king of the southern province of Shoa, called the population of Ethiopia to arms. He began to lead a massive force of some 100,000 men northward toward the Italian-occupied territories. Through late 1895 and into the early months of 1896, Menelik led a brilliant campaign that forced the overextended Italians to fight on his terms. By threatening to outflank the Italian forces and threaten Eritrea, Menelik maneuvered the Italians into a position that left their supply lines exposed, vulnerable to a population that was now turning against the occupiers.
General Baratieri was reluctant to attack Menelik’s army in the open field. Recognizing that he had been outmaneuvered, he believed that tactical retreat was his best option. Some of Baratieri’s officers argued forcefully against retreat, citing spy reports to the effect that Menelik’s forces were demoralized and depleted. Baratieri agreed to a plan that called for his army of some 15,000 to advance under cover of night and occupy forward positions, a move that would have forced Menelik to lose face if he declined to attack Italian forces holding strong defensive positions.
The advance took place at night on the 29th of February. By dawn, the Italians were to have been securely established in the Ethiopian passes, inviting attack. Instead, one Italian brigade overshot its rendezvous point and virtually marched into the Ethiopian camp. A second Italian brigade sent to cover the retreat of the first got caught up in a separate engagement. Menelik’s forces were able to defeat these brigades and the main Italian force in three separate combats. By the afternoon of 1 March 1896, Italian forces were in a desperate, panicked retreat back toward Eritrea.
Victory at Adwa sealed the unification of Ethiopia and solidified Menelik’s claim to the title of Emperor. Europeans and European-Americans interpreted the story of Adwa in different ways. For some, it was an opportunity to discredit Italy militarily. For others, it was important to advance the view that the Ethiopians were not black, thus explaining away the significance of white and European defeat.
Ethiopian victory secured independence for more than a generation. It also assured Ethiopia’s status as a beacon throughout the African Diaspora.
Sources:
George Berkeley, The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969). (Reprint of 1902 edition); Bruce Vandervort, Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Raymond Jonas, The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011).
- See more at: http://www.blackpast.org/perspectives/battle-adwa-adowa-1896#sthash.HzmgoLw9.dpufGeorge Berkeley, The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969). (Reprint of 1902 edition); Bruce Vandervort, Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830-1914, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Raymond Jonas, The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011).
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